Renewable energy is widely heralded as the cornerstone of the global energy transition, offering a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels to combat climate change. In 2024, global renewable energy capacity grew by a record 15.1%, reaching 4,448 gigawatts (GW), driven primarily by solar and wind power. Yet, the “green” label often obscures the hidden environmental and social costs of renewable energy deployment. From land use conflicts to mining impacts and habitat disruption, the race to scale renewables demands a nuanced examination of its environmental footprint.
The Green Promise: Renewable Energy’s Role in Climate Mitigation
Renewable energy is critical to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which must drop by nearly 50% by 2030 to meet Paris Agreement targets. In 2024, renewables accounted for 56.8% of Spain’s electricity mix, with wind (23.2%), solar photovoltaic (17%), and hydroelectric power (13.3%) leading the charge, reducing CO2-equivalent emissions by 16.8% to 27 million tonnes. Globally, renewables are projected to generate 46% of electricity by 2030, with solar and wind surpassing coal by 2025. These shifts have tangible benefits: replacing fossil fuels with renewables can save up to $4.2 trillion annually by 2030 through reduced pollution and climate impacts, while creating 9 million net new jobs in clean energy.
However, the narrative of renewables as a zero-impact solution is misleading. As Natalia Corbalán of Spain’s SOS Rural platform notes, “green means cultivating the land, caring for it, protecting the environment,” challenging the blanket application of the term to technologies with significant ecological costs. The following sections explore these hidden impacts across key areas: land use, biodiversity, mining, and socioeconomic consequences.
Land Use Conflicts: The Solar Surge and Agricultural Trade-Offs
The rapid expansion of solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity—up 18.9% in Spain in 2024, contributing 45 TWh to the grid—has transformed landscapes but sparked conflicts with traditional land uses. In Spain’s Jaén province, four PV projects in Lopera threaten to uproot over 100,000 olive trees, with 20 more projects planned in the region. This has prompted legal action from groups like SOS Rural, Asociación Ecología y Libertad, and Campiña Norte, who argue that solar installations jeopardize agricultural heritage and food security.
Globally, utility-scale solar projects require significant land—approximately 5–10 acres per MW of capacity. Spain, Europe’s leader in utility-scale solar with 29.5 GW operational and 7.8 GW under construction, faces pressure to balance energy goals with land preservation. Daniel Jato Espino, a researcher at the International University of Valencia, warns that “the lack of strategic planning can generate social rejection, loss of landscape values, and conflicts with traditional activities like agriculture.” Mar Asunción of WWF emphasizes that less than 2% of Spain’s territory could meet its energy needs if low-impact sites are prioritized, highlighting the need for careful site selection.
Innovative solutions like agrivoltaics—co-locating solar panels with crops—offer potential mitigation. For instance, Spain’s Totana Solar Plant, operated by Enel Green Power, integrates sustainable construction practices and supports local agriculture, contributing 85 MW while minimizing environmental disruption. However, scaling such models requires robust policy frameworks and community engagement to avoid repeating the mistakes of large-scale projects that displace fertile land.
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Impacts: Wind Power’s Double-Edged Sword
Wind power, which accounted for 23.2% of Spain’s electricity in 2024, is a cornerstone of the renewable transition but poses significant risks to biodiversity. Offshore wind farms, targeted to reach 3 GW in Spain by 2030, disrupt marine habitats during construction, with pile-driving noise affecting marine mammals and fish. Onshore wind turbines, with Spain’s 1,265 wind farms housing 21,419 turbines, pose collision risks for birds and bats, particularly in migratory corridors. A 2023 study estimated that wind turbines kill 0.3–0.4 birds per MW annually in Europe, with Spain’s 29.9 GW of wind capacity potentially impacting thousands of birds yearly.
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are critical to mitigating these risks, but over 90% of Spain’s prospective renewable projects remain in early development stages, often delayed by concerns over wildlife and habitat loss. Citizen protests and lawsuits have halted projects in areas with sensitive ecosystems, underscoring the need for participatory planning. The EU’s Renewable Energy Directive (RED III) emphasizes selecting sites with minimal ecological impact, but implementation varies, and Spain’s rapid rollout risks outpacing regulatory oversight.
Mining and Material Demands: The Hidden Cost of Clean Tech
The production of solar panels, wind turbines, and EV batteries relies heavily on mining, which carries significant environmental and social costs. Solar PV cells require silicon, silver, and rare earth elements, while wind turbines depend on steel, copper, and neodymium. EVs, a key component of the transport sector’s renewable transition, rely on lithium, cobalt, and nickel for batteries. Global demand for these materials is surging: the International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that mineral demand for clean energy technologies will double by 2030, with lithium demand rising 40-fold.
Mining processes are energy-intensive and often environmentally destructive. For example, lithium extraction in South America’s “Lithium Triangle” consumes vast amounts of water, depleting local aquifers and affecting indigenous communities. Cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which supplies 60% of global cobalt, is linked to deforestation, water pollution, and human rights concerns. In Spain, mining for PV and EV components is limited, but the country’s reliance on imported materials ties it to these global impacts. The EU’s push for “de-risking” supply chains by diversifying mineral sources has increased costs by 2–3%, further complicating the transition.
Recycling and material efficiency offer partial solutions. Emerging technologies like perovskite solar cells and iron-air batteries promise lower resource intensity, but their commercial scalability remains limited. For now, the environmental trade-off of mining underscores the paradox of “green” technologies that rely on ecologically costly inputs.
Electric Vehicles: Sustainability Questions in the Transport Sector
Electric vehicles are central to reducing transport emissions, which account for 25% of global CO2. In Spain, the National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) targets 35% electricity in final consumption by 2030, with EVs playing a key role. However, the sustainability of EVs is questioned due to battery production. A 2023 study estimated that EV battery manufacturing generates 74–114 kg CO2-equivalent per kWh of battery capacity, with a typical 60 kWh battery emitting up to 6.8 tonnes of CO2 before the vehicle is driven.
Beyond emissions, EV battery production exacerbates mining impacts. The extraction of lithium and cobalt is water-intensive and polluting, while battery disposal poses challenges due to limited recycling infrastructure. In Spain, policies like Royal Decree 244/2019 promote EV charging infrastructure, but the lack of a robust recycling ecosystem risks long-term environmental harm. The EU’s RED III directive includes provisions for sustainable battery production, but enforcement remains inconsistent.
Socioeconomic Impacts: Rural Communities and Economic Trade-Offs
The renewable energy boom has socioeconomic implications, particularly for rural communities. In Spain, where 70% of new solar and wind projects are in rural areas, conflicts arise between energy development and traditional economies. The Jaén olive tree controversy exemplifies this tension, as farmers face displacement by solar projects. Conversely, projects like Iberdrola’s 2.2 GW renewable developments create jobs, with Spain’s renewable sector employing over 100,000 people in 2024. The Ministry of Ecological Transition estimates that the energy transition could add 250,000 jobs annually and boost GDP by 2% by 2050, but uneven regional benefits fuel social resistance.
Globally, the renewable transition offers economic opportunities but risks exacerbating inequalities. Developing nations, often rich in minerals needed for renewables, face environmental degradation without proportional economic gains. China’s dominance in clean tech manufacturing—producing 80% of global solar panels—underscores the challenge for other economies to compete while maintaining sustainable practices.
Global Inflation and Economic Considerations
The environmental impacts of renewables intersect with economic pressures, including inflation. The high upfront costs of renewable infrastructure—estimated at €241 billion for Spain’s NECP through 2030—can strain public and private budgets. Globally, supply chain constraints for minerals and equipment have driven up costs, with solar panel prices rising 5–10% in 2024 due to demand outpacing supply. These costs contribute to inflationary pressures, particularly in energy-intensive sectors.
However, renewables can mitigate long-term inflation by reducing reliance on volatile fossil fuel markets. Spain’s transition is projected to save €340 billion in fossil fuel imports by 2050, equivalent to seven years of public education spending. The challenge lies in balancing short-term cost increases with long-term economic and environmental benefits, requiring strategic investments in grid resilience and storage to manage intermittency.
Toward a Responsible Transition: Solutions and Recommendations
Experts agree that renewables are indispensable for climate goals, but their deployment must be orderly and participatory. Jato Espino’s call for an “orderly, participatory, and sensitive” transition emphasizes strategic planning to minimize environmental and social harm. Key recommendations include:
Site Selection and EIAs: Prioritize low-impact sites, using less than 2% of land as suggested by WWF, and enforce rigorous EIAs to protect biodiversity.
Agrivoltaics and Innovation: Scale solutions like agrivoltaics and floatovoltaics to integrate renewables with agriculture and water conservation.
Sustainable Mining Practices: Invest in recycling and alternative materials to reduce mining impacts, aligning with EU sustainability criteria.
Community Engagement: Involve local communities in planning to ensure equitable benefits, as seen in Spain’s Totana Solar Plant.
Grid Modernization: Address intermittency through storage (Spain targets 22.5 GW by 2030) and grid upgrades to prevent blackouts, as seen in Spain’s 2025 outage.
Striking a Balance for True Sustainability
Renewable energy is a linchpin in the fight against climate change, with Spain’s 56.8% renewable electricity share in 2024 and global capacity growth signaling progress. Yet, its hidden impacts—land use conflicts, biodiversity loss, mining burdens, and socioeconomic challenges—demand a recalibration of the energy transition. The Jaén olive tree controversy and offshore wind’s marine impacts highlight the need for careful planning. By prioritizing sustainable practices, engaging communities, and investing in innovation, the global transition can deliver on its green promise without sacrificing the environment or rural livelihoods. The challenge is clear: renewable energy must be truly sustainable, not just green in name.
